Building design and construction handbook (6th edition), ARCHITEKTURA (czytelnia)
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PREFACE
The sixth edition of the
Building Design and Construction Handbook
maintains the
original objectives of previous editions which gained widespread acceptance among
users. These objectives are to provide in a single volume a compendium of the best
of the current knowledge and practices in building design and construction.
This information would be of greatest use to those who have to make decisions
affecting the selection of engineering materials and construction methods. Emphasis
is placed on fundamental principles and practical applications, with special attention
to simplified procedures. Frequent reference is made to other sources where addi-
tional authoritative information may be obtained, such as architectural and engi-
neering societies, manufacturers associations, and the Internet. An extensive index
is provided to assist the reader in locating topics within the book.
Many new contributors and sections have been added in this edition to provide
the reader with the latest developments and knowledge in the building industry.
These developments include the expansion of data technology and communication
systems within the building system, revisions to wind and seismic loadings, and an
expansion of the information on fire sprinkler systems. To present the necessary
information in a single volume, obsolete and less-important information in the ear-
lier editions has been deleted.
The editor is very grateful to the contributors, not only for their care, skill, and
knowledge used in preparing the sections, but also for their considerable sacrifices
of personal time to prepare the sections.
Jonathan T. Ricketts
xxiii
SECTION ONE
BUILDING SYSTEMS*
Jonathan T. Ricketts
Consulting Engineer
Palm Beach Gardens, Florida
Sociological changes, new technology in industry and commerce, new building
codes, other new laws and regulations, inflationary economies of nations, and ad-
vances in building technology place an ever-increasing burden on building designers
and constructors. They need more and more knowledge and skill to cope with the
demands placed on them.
The public continually demands more complex buildings than in the past. They
must serve more purposes, last longer, and require less maintenance and repair. As
in the past, they must look attractive. Yet, both building construction and operating
costs must be kept within acceptable limits or new construction will cease.
To meet this challenge successfully, continual improvements in building design
and construction must be made. Building designers and constructors should be alert
to these advances and learn how to apply them skillfully.
One advance of note to building design is the adaptation of operations research,
or systems design, developed around the middle of the twentieth century and orig-
inally applied with noteworthy results to design of machines and electronic equip-
ment. In the past, design of a new building was mainly an imitation of the design
of an existing building. Innovations were often developed fortuitously and by in-
tuition and were rare occurrences. In contrast, systems design encourages innova-
tion. It is a precise procedure that guides creativity toward the best decisions. As
a result, it can play a significant role in meeting the challenges posed by increasing
building complexity and costs. The basic principles of systems design are presented
in this section.
1.1 PRINCIPLES OF ARCHITECTURE
A building is an assemblage that is firmly attached to the ground and that provides
total or nearly total shelter for machines, processing equipment, performance of
human activities, storage of human possessions, or any combination of these.
*Revised and updated from the previous edition by the late Frederick S. Merritt.
1.1
1.2
SECTION ONE
Building design
is the process of providing all information necessary for con-
struction of a building that will meet its owner’s requirements and also satisfy public
health, welfare, and safety requirements.
Architecture
is the art and science of
building design.
Building construction
is the process of assembling materials to
form a building.
Building design may be legally executed only by persons deemed competent to
do so by the state in which the building is to be constructed. Competency is de-
termined on the basis of education, experience, and ability to pass a written test of
design skills.
Architects
are persons legally permitted to practice architecture.
Engineers
are
experts in specific scientific disciplines and are legally permitted to design parts of
buildings; in some cases, complete buildings. In some states, persons licensed as
building designers
are permitted to design certain types of buildings.
Building construction is generally performed by laborers and craftspeople en-
gaged for the purpose by an individual or organization, called a
contractor.
The
contractor signs an agreement, or contract, with the building owner under which
the contractor agrees to construct a specific building on a specified site and the
owner agrees to pay for the materials and services provided.
In the design of a building, architects should be guided by the following prin-
ciples:
1.
The building should be constructed to serve purposes specified by the client.
2.
The design should be constructable by known techniques and with available
labor and equipment, within an acceptable time.
3.
The building should be capable of withstanding the elements and normal usage
for a period of time specified by the client.
4.
Both inside and outside, the building should be visually pleasing.
5.
No part of the building should pose a hazard to the safety or health of its
occupants under normal usage, and the building should provide for safe evacu-
ation or refuge in emergencies.
6.
The building should provide the degree of shelter from the elements and of
control of the interior environment—air, temperature, humidity, light, and acous-
tics—specified by the client and not less than the minimums required for safety
and health of the occupants.
7.
The building should be constructed to minimize adverse impact on the environ-
ment.
8.
Operation of the building should consume a minimum of energy while permit-
ting the structure to serve its purposes.
9.
The sum of costs of construction, operation, maintenance, repair, and anticipated
future alterations should be kept within the limit specified by the client.
The ultimate objective of design is to provide all the information necessary for the
construction of a building. This objective is achieved by the production of
draw-
ings,
or
plans,
showing what is to be constructed,
specifications
stating what ma-
terials and equipment are to be incorporated in the building, and a
construction
contract
between the client and a contractor. Designers also should observe con-
struction of the building while it is in process. This should be done not only to
assist the client in ensuring that the building is being constructed in accordance
with plans and specifications but also to obtain information that will be useful in
design of future buildings.
BUILDING SYSTEMS
1.3
1.2 SYSTEMS DESIGN AND ANALYSIS
Systems design comprises a logical series of steps that leads to the best decision
for a given set of conditions. The procedure requires:
Analysis
of a building as a system.
Synthesis,
or selection of components, to form a system that meets specific
objectives while subject to constraints, or variables controllable by designers.
Appraisal
of system performance, including comparisons with alternative sys-
tems.
Feedback
to analysis and synthesis of information obtained in system evalua-
tion, to improve the design.
The prime advantage of the procedure is that, through comparisons of alterna-
tives and data feedback to the design process, systems design converges on an
optimum, or best, system for the given conditions. Another advantage is that the
procedure enables designers to clarify the requirements for the building being de-
signed. Still another advantage is that the procedure provides a common basis of
understanding and promotes cooperation between the specialists in various aspects
of building design.
For a building to be treated as a system, as required in systems design, it is
necessary to know what a system is and what its basic characteristic are.
A system is an assemblage formed to satisfy specific objectives and subject to
constraints and restrictions and consisting of two or more components that are
interrelated and compatible, each component being essential to the required per-
formance of the system.
Because the components are required to be interrelated, operation, or even the
mere existence, of one component affects in some way the performance of other
components. Also, the required performance of the system as a whole, as well as
the constraints on the system, imposes restrictions on each component.
A building meets the preceding requirements. By definition, it is an assemblage
(Art. 1.1). It is constructed to serve specific purposes. It is subject to constraints
while doing so, inasmuch as designers can control properties of the system by
selection of components (Art. 1.9). Building components, such as walls, floors,
roofs, windows, and doors, are interrelated and compatible with each other. The
existence of any of thee components affects to some extent the performance of the
others. And the required performance of the building as a whole imposes restrictions
on the components. Consequently, a building has the basic characteristics of a
system, and systems-design procedures should be applicable to it.
Systems Analysis.
A group of components of a system may also be a system.
Such a group is called a
subsystem.
It, too, may be designed as a system, but its
goal must be to assist the system of which it is a component to meet its objectives.
Similarly, a group of components of a subsystem may also be a system. That group
is called a
subsubsystem.
For brevity, the major subsystems of a building are referred to as systems in this
book.
In a complex system, such as a building, subsystems and other components may
be combined in a variety of ways to form different systems. For the purposes of
building design, the major systems are usually defined in accordance with the con-
struction trades that will assemble them, for example, structural framing, plumbing,
electrical systems, and heating, ventilation, and air conditioning.
In systems analysis, a system is resolved into its basic components. Subsystems
are determined. Then, the system is investigated to determine the nature, interaction,
1.4
SECTION ONE
and performance of the system as a whole. The investigation should answer such
questions as:
What does each component (or subsystem) do?
What does the component do it to?
How does the component serve its function?
What else does the component do?
Why does the component do the things it does?
What must the component really do?
Can it be eliminated because it is not essential or because another component
can assume its tasks?
See also Art. 1.8.
1.3 TRADITIONAL DESIGN PROCEDURES
Systems design of buildings requires a different approach to design and construction
than that used in traditional design (Art. 1.9). Because traditional design and con-
struction procedures are still widely used, however, it is desirable to incorporate as
much of those procedures in systems design as is feasible without destroying its
effectiveness. This will make the transition from traditional design to systems de-
sign easier. Also, those trained in systems design of buildings will then be capable
of practicing in traditional ways, if necessary.
There are several variations of traditional design and construction. These are
described throughout this book. For the purpose of illustrating how they may be
modified for systems design, however, one widely used variation, which will be
called basic traditional design and construction, is described in the following and
in Art. 1.4.
In the basic traditional design procedure, design usually starts when a client
recognizes the need for and economic feasibility of a building and engages an
architect, a professional with a broad background in building design. The architect,
in turn, engages consulting engineers and other consultants.
For most buildings, structural, mechanical, and electrical consulting engineers
are required. A structural engineer is a specialist trained in the application of sci-
entific principles to the design of load-bearing walls, floors, roofs, foundations, and
skeleton framing needed for the support of buildings and building components. A
mechanical engineer is a specialist trained in the application of scientific principles
to the design of plumbing, elevators, escalators, horizontal walkways, dumbwaiters,
conveyors, installed machinery, and heating, ventilation, and air conditioning. An
electrical engineer is a specialist trained in the application of scientific principles
to the design of electric circuits, electric controls and safety devices, electric motors
and generators, electric lighting, and other electric equipment.
For buildings on a large site, the architect may engage a landscape architect as
a consultant. For a concert hall, an acoustics consultant may be engaged; for a
hospital, a hospital specialist; for a school, a school specialist.
The architect does the overall planning of the building and incorporates the
output of the consultants into the contract documents. The architect determines what
internal and external spaces the client needs, the sizes of these spaces, their relative
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PREFACE
The sixth edition of the
Building Design and Construction Handbook
maintains the
original objectives of previous editions which gained widespread acceptance among
users. These objectives are to provide in a single volume a compendium of the best
of the current knowledge and practices in building design and construction.
This information would be of greatest use to those who have to make decisions
affecting the selection of engineering materials and construction methods. Emphasis
is placed on fundamental principles and practical applications, with special attention
to simplified procedures. Frequent reference is made to other sources where addi-
tional authoritative information may be obtained, such as architectural and engi-
neering societies, manufacturers associations, and the Internet. An extensive index
is provided to assist the reader in locating topics within the book.
Many new contributors and sections have been added in this edition to provide
the reader with the latest developments and knowledge in the building industry.
These developments include the expansion of data technology and communication
systems within the building system, revisions to wind and seismic loadings, and an
expansion of the information on fire sprinkler systems. To present the necessary
information in a single volume, obsolete and less-important information in the ear-
lier editions has been deleted.
The editor is very grateful to the contributors, not only for their care, skill, and
knowledge used in preparing the sections, but also for their considerable sacrifices
of personal time to prepare the sections.
Jonathan T. Ricketts
xxiii
SECTION ONE
BUILDING SYSTEMS*
Jonathan T. Ricketts
Consulting Engineer
Palm Beach Gardens, Florida
Sociological changes, new technology in industry and commerce, new building
codes, other new laws and regulations, inflationary economies of nations, and ad-
vances in building technology place an ever-increasing burden on building designers
and constructors. They need more and more knowledge and skill to cope with the
demands placed on them.
The public continually demands more complex buildings than in the past. They
must serve more purposes, last longer, and require less maintenance and repair. As
in the past, they must look attractive. Yet, both building construction and operating
costs must be kept within acceptable limits or new construction will cease.
To meet this challenge successfully, continual improvements in building design
and construction must be made. Building designers and constructors should be alert
to these advances and learn how to apply them skillfully.
One advance of note to building design is the adaptation of operations research,
or systems design, developed around the middle of the twentieth century and orig-
inally applied with noteworthy results to design of machines and electronic equip-
ment. In the past, design of a new building was mainly an imitation of the design
of an existing building. Innovations were often developed fortuitously and by in-
tuition and were rare occurrences. In contrast, systems design encourages innova-
tion. It is a precise procedure that guides creativity toward the best decisions. As
a result, it can play a significant role in meeting the challenges posed by increasing
building complexity and costs. The basic principles of systems design are presented
in this section.
1.1 PRINCIPLES OF ARCHITECTURE
A building is an assemblage that is firmly attached to the ground and that provides
total or nearly total shelter for machines, processing equipment, performance of
human activities, storage of human possessions, or any combination of these.
*Revised and updated from the previous edition by the late Frederick S. Merritt.
1.1
1.2
SECTION ONE
Building design
is the process of providing all information necessary for con-
struction of a building that will meet its owner’s requirements and also satisfy public
health, welfare, and safety requirements.
Architecture
is the art and science of
building design.
Building construction
is the process of assembling materials to
form a building.
Building design may be legally executed only by persons deemed competent to
do so by the state in which the building is to be constructed. Competency is de-
termined on the basis of education, experience, and ability to pass a written test of
design skills.
Architects
are persons legally permitted to practice architecture.
Engineers
are
experts in specific scientific disciplines and are legally permitted to design parts of
buildings; in some cases, complete buildings. In some states, persons licensed as
building designers
are permitted to design certain types of buildings.
Building construction is generally performed by laborers and craftspeople en-
gaged for the purpose by an individual or organization, called a
contractor.
The
contractor signs an agreement, or contract, with the building owner under which
the contractor agrees to construct a specific building on a specified site and the
owner agrees to pay for the materials and services provided.
In the design of a building, architects should be guided by the following prin-
ciples:
1.
The building should be constructed to serve purposes specified by the client.
2.
The design should be constructable by known techniques and with available
labor and equipment, within an acceptable time.
3.
The building should be capable of withstanding the elements and normal usage
for a period of time specified by the client.
4.
Both inside and outside, the building should be visually pleasing.
5.
No part of the building should pose a hazard to the safety or health of its
occupants under normal usage, and the building should provide for safe evacu-
ation or refuge in emergencies.
6.
The building should provide the degree of shelter from the elements and of
control of the interior environment—air, temperature, humidity, light, and acous-
tics—specified by the client and not less than the minimums required for safety
and health of the occupants.
7.
The building should be constructed to minimize adverse impact on the environ-
ment.
8.
Operation of the building should consume a minimum of energy while permit-
ting the structure to serve its purposes.
9.
The sum of costs of construction, operation, maintenance, repair, and anticipated
future alterations should be kept within the limit specified by the client.
The ultimate objective of design is to provide all the information necessary for the
construction of a building. This objective is achieved by the production of
draw-
ings,
or
plans,
showing what is to be constructed,
specifications
stating what ma-
terials and equipment are to be incorporated in the building, and a
construction
contract
between the client and a contractor. Designers also should observe con-
struction of the building while it is in process. This should be done not only to
assist the client in ensuring that the building is being constructed in accordance
with plans and specifications but also to obtain information that will be useful in
design of future buildings.
BUILDING SYSTEMS
1.3
1.2 SYSTEMS DESIGN AND ANALYSIS
Systems design comprises a logical series of steps that leads to the best decision
for a given set of conditions. The procedure requires:
Analysis
of a building as a system.
Synthesis,
or selection of components, to form a system that meets specific
objectives while subject to constraints, or variables controllable by designers.
Appraisal
of system performance, including comparisons with alternative sys-
tems.
Feedback
to analysis and synthesis of information obtained in system evalua-
tion, to improve the design.
The prime advantage of the procedure is that, through comparisons of alterna-
tives and data feedback to the design process, systems design converges on an
optimum, or best, system for the given conditions. Another advantage is that the
procedure enables designers to clarify the requirements for the building being de-
signed. Still another advantage is that the procedure provides a common basis of
understanding and promotes cooperation between the specialists in various aspects
of building design.
For a building to be treated as a system, as required in systems design, it is
necessary to know what a system is and what its basic characteristic are.
A system is an assemblage formed to satisfy specific objectives and subject to
constraints and restrictions and consisting of two or more components that are
interrelated and compatible, each component being essential to the required per-
formance of the system.
Because the components are required to be interrelated, operation, or even the
mere existence, of one component affects in some way the performance of other
components. Also, the required performance of the system as a whole, as well as
the constraints on the system, imposes restrictions on each component.
A building meets the preceding requirements. By definition, it is an assemblage
(Art. 1.1). It is constructed to serve specific purposes. It is subject to constraints
while doing so, inasmuch as designers can control properties of the system by
selection of components (Art. 1.9). Building components, such as walls, floors,
roofs, windows, and doors, are interrelated and compatible with each other. The
existence of any of thee components affects to some extent the performance of the
others. And the required performance of the building as a whole imposes restrictions
on the components. Consequently, a building has the basic characteristics of a
system, and systems-design procedures should be applicable to it.
Systems Analysis.
A group of components of a system may also be a system.
Such a group is called a
subsystem.
It, too, may be designed as a system, but its
goal must be to assist the system of which it is a component to meet its objectives.
Similarly, a group of components of a subsystem may also be a system. That group
is called a
subsubsystem.
For brevity, the major subsystems of a building are referred to as systems in this
book.
In a complex system, such as a building, subsystems and other components may
be combined in a variety of ways to form different systems. For the purposes of
building design, the major systems are usually defined in accordance with the con-
struction trades that will assemble them, for example, structural framing, plumbing,
electrical systems, and heating, ventilation, and air conditioning.
In systems analysis, a system is resolved into its basic components. Subsystems
are determined. Then, the system is investigated to determine the nature, interaction,
1.4
SECTION ONE
and performance of the system as a whole. The investigation should answer such
questions as:
What does each component (or subsystem) do?
What does the component do it to?
How does the component serve its function?
What else does the component do?
Why does the component do the things it does?
What must the component really do?
Can it be eliminated because it is not essential or because another component
can assume its tasks?
See also Art. 1.8.
1.3 TRADITIONAL DESIGN PROCEDURES
Systems design of buildings requires a different approach to design and construction
than that used in traditional design (Art. 1.9). Because traditional design and con-
struction procedures are still widely used, however, it is desirable to incorporate as
much of those procedures in systems design as is feasible without destroying its
effectiveness. This will make the transition from traditional design to systems de-
sign easier. Also, those trained in systems design of buildings will then be capable
of practicing in traditional ways, if necessary.
There are several variations of traditional design and construction. These are
described throughout this book. For the purpose of illustrating how they may be
modified for systems design, however, one widely used variation, which will be
called basic traditional design and construction, is described in the following and
in Art. 1.4.
In the basic traditional design procedure, design usually starts when a client
recognizes the need for and economic feasibility of a building and engages an
architect, a professional with a broad background in building design. The architect,
in turn, engages consulting engineers and other consultants.
For most buildings, structural, mechanical, and electrical consulting engineers
are required. A structural engineer is a specialist trained in the application of sci-
entific principles to the design of load-bearing walls, floors, roofs, foundations, and
skeleton framing needed for the support of buildings and building components. A
mechanical engineer is a specialist trained in the application of scientific principles
to the design of plumbing, elevators, escalators, horizontal walkways, dumbwaiters,
conveyors, installed machinery, and heating, ventilation, and air conditioning. An
electrical engineer is a specialist trained in the application of scientific principles
to the design of electric circuits, electric controls and safety devices, electric motors
and generators, electric lighting, and other electric equipment.
For buildings on a large site, the architect may engage a landscape architect as
a consultant. For a concert hall, an acoustics consultant may be engaged; for a
hospital, a hospital specialist; for a school, a school specialist.
The architect does the overall planning of the building and incorporates the
output of the consultants into the contract documents. The architect determines what
internal and external spaces the client needs, the sizes of these spaces, their relative
[ Pobierz całość w formacie PDF ]